Global spread of the printing press

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Part of the series on the History of printing
Woodblock printing		200 CE
Movable type		1040
Intaglio		1430s
Printing press		1439
Lithography		1796
Chromolithography		1837
Rotary press		1843
Flexography		1873
Mimeograph		1876
Linotype typesetting		1886
Offset press		1903
Screen-printing		1907
Dye-sublimation		1957
Photocopier		1960s
Pad printing		1960s
Laser printer		1969
Dot matrix printer		1970
Thermal printer
Inkjet printer		1976
3D printing		1986
Stereolithography		1986
Digital press		1993
v • d • e

The global spread of the printing press with movable type began with the invention of the mechanical printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in Germany (circa 1439), and ended with the adoption of modern printing technology in all major regions of the world by the end of the 19th century. Practically all modern bulk printing technology can be traced back to this single source, Gutenberg's printing press.

Contents 1 Spread of the Gutenberg printing press 1.1 Germany 1.2 Europe 1.3 Rest of the world 2 Dates by location 2.1 Germany, Austria and German printers in Central Europe 2.2 Rest of Europe 2.2.1 Italy 2.2.2 Switzerland 2.2.3 France 2.2.4 The Netherlands 2.2.5 Spain 2.2.6 Hungary 2.2.7 Belgium 2.2.8 Poland 2.2.9 England 2.2.10 Denmark 2.2.11 Sweden 2.2.12 Portugal 2.2.13 Montenegro 2.2.14 Scotland 2.2.15 Romania 2.2.16 Greece 2.2.17 Lithuania 2.2.18 Iceland 2.2.19 Norway 2.2.20 Ireland 2.2.21 Russia 2.2.22 Turkey 2.2.23 Latvia 2.2.24 Finland 2.2.25 Georgia 2.2.26 Greenland 2.3 Rest of the world 2.3.1 Latin America 2.3.2 Africa 2.3.3 South Asia 2.3.4 South East Asia 2.3.5 East Asia 2.3.6 Inner Asia 2.3.7 North America 2.3.8 Australia & Oceania 3 References 4 Further reading 5 See also 6 External links

[edit] Spread of the Gutenberg printing press

[edit] Germany

Gutenberg's first major print work was the 42-line bible in Latin (B42), printed probably between 1452 and 1454 in the German city of Mainz. After Gutenberg lost a lawsuit against his investor Johann Fust, Fust put Gutenberg's employee Peter Schöffer in charge of the print shop. Thereupon Gutenberg established a new one with the financial backing of another money lender. With Gutenberg's monopoly soon shattered, and the secrecy of the new technology compromised, printing spread throughout Germany and beyond, diffused first by emigrating German printers, but soon also by foreign apprentices.

[edit] Europe

In rapid succession, printing presses were set up in middle and western Europe. Major towns, in particular, functioned as centers of diffusion (Köln 1466, Rome 1467, Venice 1469, Paris 1470, Kraków 1473, London 1477). In 1481, barely 30 years after the publication of the B42, the small Netherlands already featured printing shops in 21 cities and towns, Italy even 40 (1480) and Germany a similar number. According to one estimate, "by 1500, 220 printing presses were in operation throughout Western Europe and had produced 8 million books."^[1] Germany and Italy were considered the two main centres of printing in terms of quantity and quality.

[edit] Rest of the world

The near-simultaneous discovery of sea routes to the West (Christopher Columbus, 1492) and East (Vasco da Gama, 1498) and the subsequent establishment of trade links greatly facilitated the global spread of Gutenberg-style printing. Traders, colonists, but, perhaps most, missionaries exported printing presses to the new European oversea domains, setting up new print shops and distributing printing material. In America, the first extra-European print shop was founded in Mexico City in 1544 (1539?), and soon after Jesuits started operating the first printing press on Asian soil (Goa, 1556).

For a long time, however, movable type printing rather remained the business of Europeans, working from within the confines of their colonies. Ignorance and religious reasons seemed to be among the reasons for the slow adoption of the printing press by indigenous peoples. Thus, printing remained prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1727, initially even on death penalty. And in India, reports are that Jesuits "presented a polyglot Bible to the Emperor Akbar in 1580 but did not succeed in arousing much curiosity."^[2] But also practical reasons seem to have played a role. The English East India Company, for example, brought a printer to Surat in 1675, but was not able to cast type in Indian scripts, so the venture failed.^[2] A notable exception was the adoption by the Cherokee Indian Elias Boudinot who published the tribe's first newspaper Cherokee Phoenix partly in his native language, using the Cherokee alphabet recently invented by his compatriot Sequoyah.

The earliest printed books in the Middle east were six volumes printed in Hebrew in Safed, by Eliezer ben Isaac Ashkenazi between 1577 and 1587. In 1610, the first printing press in the Levant was produced in the Valley of Deir Mar Antonios Qozhaya in Ehden. The advent of the printing press invigorated the literary and intellectual renaissance in Lebanon. In 1733, printing using Arabic letters was first launched in Deir Mar Youhanna El Sayegh in Khonchara, Mount Lebanon. In 1834, a printing press founded by the American Protestant mission in Beirut became instrumental in disseminating information of this craft, and soon contributed to the launching of family-owned publishing houses. Around the 1970s, several printing presses emerged in Lebanon, such as Joseph D. Raidy Printing Press, today known as Raidy Printing Group s.a.l. In 2008, the first "printing city" in the Middle East is established in Fyadieh, next to Hazmieh.^[3]

In the 19th century, the arrival of the Gutenberg-style press - essentially unchanged from the time of its invention - to the shores of Tahiti (1818), Hawaii (1821) and other Pacific islands, marked the end of a global diffusion process which had begun almost 400 years earlier. At the same time, the 'old style' press (as the Gutenberg model came to be termed in the 19th century), was already in the process of being displaced by industrial machines like the steam powered press (1812) and the rotary press (1833) - both of which can to be considered developments of the Gutenberg press.

[edit] Dates by location

The following represents a selection:^[4]

[edit] Germany, Austria and German printers in Central Europe

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1452-54	Mainz	Johannes Gutenberg, Peter Schöffer, Johann Fust (investor)	Gutenberg Bible
Before 1462	Strasbourg		In 1605, Johann Carolus publishes the German Relation aller Fuernemmen und gedenckwuerdigen Historien (Collection of all distinguished and commemorable news), recognized by the World Association of Newspapers as the first newspaper.[5]
c. 1461 [6]	Bamberg	Albrecht Pfister, Johann Sensenschmid (from 1480)	Pfister: first woodcut book illustration c. 1461[6]
1466	Cologne	Ulrich Zell
1468	Augsburg	Günther Zainer
	Lubeck		1488, Missale Aboense and other versions, first books for the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, by Bartholomeus Ghotan
	Pilsen
1470	Nuremberg	Johann Sensenschmid, Johannes Regiomontanus (1472-75), Anton Koberger (1473-1513)
1471	Speyer
1473	Esslingen
	Laugingen
	Merseburg
	Ulm
1475	Blaubeuren
" [7]	Breslau (now Wrocław)	Kasper Elyan of Glogau [1]	Kasper's print shop remained operational until 1483 with an overall output of 11 titles.[7]
	Burgdorf
	Lubeck
	Trento
1476	Rostock
1478	Eichstatt
	Prague
1479	Würzburg	Georg Reyser
1481	Leipzig	Andreas Friesner
1482	Vienna	Johann Winterburger
	Munich	Johann Schauer
	Erfurt
	Passau
1483	Magdeburg
1485	Heidelberg
	Regensburg
1486 [8]	Schleswig	Stephan Arndes
	Stuttgart
	Münster
	Brno
1491	Hamburg

[edit] Rest of Europe

[edit] Italy

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1465 [9]	Subiaco	Arnold Pannartz, Konrad Sweynheym
1467 [9]	Rome	Ulrich Hahn, Arnold Pannartz, Konrad Sweynheym (from 1467)
1469 [9]	Venice	Johann von Speyer, shortly afterwards Nikolaus Jenson from Tours, Aldus Manutius	Johann was granted a privilege for 5 years for movable type printing by the Senate, but died soon after.[10] In 1501, Ottaviano Petrucci produced the first book of sheet music printed from movable type.
1470 [9]	Milan	Filippo de Lavagna, Antonio Zaroto, shortly afterwards Waldarfer von Regensburg
" [9]	Naples
1471 [9]	Florence	Demetrius Damilas	Earliest printing in Greek
" [9]	Genoa
" [9]	Bologna		Probably in 1477, claimed to have the first engraved illustrations,[11] although the 1476 Boccaccio edition by Colard Mansion in Bruges already had copper engravings[12]

In the 15th century, printing presses were established in 77 Italian cities and towns. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, of which 130 (86%) were north of Rome.^[13] During these two centuries a total of 2894 printers were active in Italy, with only 216 of them located in southern Italy. Ca. 60% of the Italian printing shops were situated in six cities (Venice, Rome, Milan, Naples, Bologna and Florence), with the concentration of printers in Venice being particularly high (ca. 30%).^[14]

[edit] Switzerland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
Latest 1468	Basel	Berthold Ruppel
1470	Beromünster, Aargau	Helias Helye
1478	Geneva	Adam Steinschauwer
1504	Zürich
1577	Schaffhausen
1578	St. Gallen
1585	Fribourg
1664	Einsiedeln

[edit] France

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1470	Paris	Ulrich Gering, Martin Crantz, Michael Friburger
	Lyon	Guillaume le Roy, Buyer
1477	Angers
1478	Chablis
1479	Toulouse
	Poitiers[6]
1480	Caen
1481	Vienne
1483	Troyes
1484	Rennes
1486	Abbeville
1487	Rouen
	Besancon
1490	Orléans
1491	Dijon
	Angoulême
1493	Nantes
1495	Limoges
1496	Tours
1497	Avignon
1500	Perpignan

Apart from the cities above, there was a small number of lesser towns which set up printing presses.

[edit] The Netherlands

Date	City	Printer	Comment
c.1471	Utrecht
1477	Gouda	Gerard Leeu
	Deventer	Richard Paffroad
	Delft	Jacob Jacobzoon
1483	Haarlem	Jacob Bellaert
1500	Amsterdam

In 1481, printing was already done in 21 towns and cities.

[edit] Spain

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1472	Segovia	Johannes Parix
1473	Barcelona or Zaragoza	Heinrich Botel
1474	Valencia
1475	Zaragoza	Matthias Flander, Paul Hurus
1477	Seville
1478	Barcelona		first dated book
1496	Granada	Meinrad Ungut, Hans Pegnitzer
1499	Montserrat		Oldest publishing house in the world still running

[edit] Hungary

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1473 [15]	Buda (now Budapest)	Andreas Hess?	The first work printed on Hungarian soil was the Latin history book Chronica Hungarorum published on 5 June 1473.[15]
1534	Braşov
1550 [16]	Klausenburg
1561 [17]	Debrecen		The town becoming a stronghold of Calvinism in Hungary during the Reformation, the press was particularly active in service of the Calvinist cause.[17]

In the 16th century, a total of 20 print shops were active in 30 different places in Hungary, as some of them were moving several times due to political instability.^[17]

[edit] Belgium

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1473 [18]	Aalst	Dirk Martens
1474	Leuven	Johann von Westphalen
1475	Bruges	Colard Mansion	Worked with, and (?) trained William Caxton, printing the first books in English (Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye) and also French, as well as the first book to use engravings for illustrations.
1476	Brussels
1480	Oudenaarde	Arend De Keysere
1482	Antwerp	Matt. Van der Goes
1483	Ghent	Arend De Keysere

[edit] Poland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1473 [19]	Kraków	Kasper Straube	The oldest printed work in Poland is the Latin Calendarium cracoviense (Cracovian Calendar), a single-sheet astronomical almanac for the year 1474. Although Straube continued to published in Cracow until 1477, printing became permanently established in Cracow, and Poland, only after 1503.[20] In 1491, the first book in Cyrillic script was published by Schweipolt Fiol, Franconian native.[21] In 1513, Florian Ungler printed Hortulus Animae, the first book in the Polish language.
after 1490 [20]	Malbork	Jakob Karweyse	Only two editions printed.[20]
1537	Gdańsk	Franz Rhode	1538: Wisby’sches Waterrecht, 1540: Narratio Prima
1593	Lwów	Matthias Bernhart
1625	Warsaw

In the 15th and 16th centuries printing presses were also established in Poznań, Lwów, Brześć Litewski and Wilno.^[7]

[edit] England

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1476 [22]	London	William Caxton, shortly afterwards John Lettou, William Machlinia, Wynkyn de Worde	The first dated prints in England are an indulgence dating to the 13 December 1476 (date written in by hand), and the 'Dicts or Sayings', completed on 18th November 1477. Between 1472 and 1476, Caxton had already published several English works on the continent (see Bruges above).[22]
1478	Oxford	Theoderich Rood

[edit] Denmark

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1482 [8]	Odense, Fune	Johann Snell	Snell was the first to introduce printing both in Denmark and Sweden.[8]
1493 [8]	Copenhagen	Gottfried von Ghemen	Von Ghemen published in Copenhagen from 1493 to 1495 and from 1505 to 1510. In the meantime, he was active in the Dutch town of Leiden. For 200 years, official policy confined printing in Denmark largely to Copenhagen.[23]

[edit] Sweden

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1483 [8]	Stockholm	Johann Snell
1495	Wadstena
1510	Upsala

[edit] Portugal

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1487 [24]	Faro	Samuel Gacon (also called Porteiro)	The country's first printed book was the Hebrew Pentateuch, published by the Jew Samuel Gacon in southern Portugal, after having fled from the Spanish Inquisition.[24]
1488 [25]	Chaves [25]	Unknown [25]	According to the German scholar Horch the Sacramental is the first book printed in Portuguese, and not Ludolphus de Saxonia's Livro de Vita Christi of 1495 as previously assumed.[25]
1489	Lissabon (Lisboa)	Rabbi Zorba, Raban Eliezer
1492	Leiria
1494	Braga
1536	Coimbra
1571	Vizeu
1583	Angra, Azoren
1622	Oporto

[edit] Montenegro

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1493	Cetinje	Đurađ IV Crnojević, Makarije	Đurađ IV Crnojević (1490-96), ruler of Montenegro, is most famous for using the printing press brought to Cetinje by his father Ivan I Crnojević to print the first books in southeastern Europe, in 1493. The Crnojević printing press marked the beginning of the printed word among the southern Slavs. The press operated from 1493 through 1496, turning out religious books of which five have been preserved: Oktoih prvoglasnik, Oktoih petoglasnik, Psaltir, Molitvenik and Cetvorojevandjelje. Đurađ managed the printing of the books, wrote prefaces and afterwords, and developed sophisticated tables of Psalms with the lunar calendar. The books from the Crnojević press were printed in two colors, red and black, and were richly ornamented. They served as models for many of the subsequent books printed in cyrillic. The end of the 15th century and of Djuradj's rule mark the end of the Crnojević dynasty.

By 1500, the cut-off point for incunabula, 236 towns in Europe had presses, and it is estimated that twenty million books had been printed for a European population of perhaps seventy million.^[6]

[edit] Scotland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1507[26] (the earliest surviving item is dated 4 April, 1508)	Sou Gait (now called the Cowgate), Edinburgh	Walter Chepman and Androw Myllar	William Elphinstone, the Bishop of Aberdeen, was anxious to get a breviary published (see Aberdeen Breviary), and petitioned King James IV to have a printing press set up. Myllar had previously been involved with printing in France, where Scots authors had traditionally had their books printed (see Auld Alliance). The earliest works were mainly small books (approximately 15 cm), but at least one book was printed in folio format, Blind Hary’s Wallace.[27]
1552	St Andrews[28]	John Scot[29]
1571	Stirling	Robert Lekprevik
1622	Aberdeen	Edward Raban
1638	Glasgow	George Anderson
1651	Leith	Evan Tyler
1685	Campbeltown	unknown printer
1694	Maybole	unknown printer

[edit] Romania

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1508	Targoviste	Makarije	Macarie is brought into Wallachia by the prince Radu cel Mare. The first printed book in Romania is made in 1508, Liturghierul. Octoihul is also printed in 1510, and Evangheliarul is printed in 1512[30]
1545	Targoviste	Dimitrie Liubavici	Mostly religious books are printed, among them being Molitvelnic.[31] Interestingly, books printed in Wallachia were also reprinted for use in Moldavia, which at the time did not have its own press.

[edit] Greece

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1515	Saloniki
1817	Corfu

Greek books were published in Italy and the Ottoman Empire, especially in Constantinople and Smyrna by Greeks from the 15th Century onwards.

[edit] Lithuania

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1522	Vilnius	Skoryna	[Little travel book]
1575	Vilnius		Pro sacratisisima Eucharistia... Typis academiae Societatis Jesu Vilnensis

[edit] Iceland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
ca. 1530 [32]	Holar	Jon Matthiasson (Swede)	Press imported on the initiative of Bishop Jon Arason. First known local print is the Latin songbook Breviarium Holense of 1534.[32]

[edit] Norway

Date	City	Printer	Comment
mid-16th century	Trondheim
1644	Oslo

[edit] Ireland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1551	?	Humphrey Powell

[edit] Russia

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1553-4 [21]	Moscow	Unknown	According to recent research, the Gospel Book and six others published then.[21]
1564 [33]	Moscow	Ivan Fyodorov (printer)	Acts of the Apostles (Apostol) is the first dated book printed in Russia.[33]
1711 [34]	St Petersburg
1815	Astrachan

Until the reign of Peter the Great printing in Russia remained confined to the print office established by Fedorov in Moscow. In the 18th century, annual printing output gradually rose from 147 titles in 1724 to 435 (1787), but remained constrained by state censorship and widespread illiteracy.^[35]

[edit] Turkey

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1554	Bursa
1727	Constantinople	Ibrahim Efendi

Due to religious qualms, Sultan Bayezid II and successors prohibited printing in Arabic script in the Ottoman empire from 1483 on penalty of death, but printing in other scripts was done by Jews as well as the Greek and Armenian communities (1515 Saloniki, 1554 Bursa (Adrianople), 1552 Belgrade, 1658 Smyrna). In 1727, Sultan Achmed III gave his permission for the establishment of the first legal print house for printing Arabic script.

[edit] Latvia

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1588	Riga	Nikolaus Mollin

[edit] Finland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1642 [36]	Turku	Peder Wald (Swede)	The earliest books in Finnish language were printed in Germany and Sweden. The first print shop was established at the first university of Finland, The Royal Academy of Turku. In 1758 the printer J.C. Frenckell bought a share of the print shop. The Frenckell family was in business until 2008.
1689	Vyborg

Finland was under Swedish sovereignty until 1809, and under Russian rule until 1917.

[edit] Georgia

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1701	Tbilisi

[edit] Greenland

Date	City	Printer	Comment
1860	Godthaab

[edit] Rest of the world

[edit] Latin America

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comment
1539 [37]	Mexico City	Mexico	Juan Pablos of Brescia[38]	Established by order of Juan Cromberger from Seville, the first book printed was Breve y Mas Compendiosa Doctrina Christina.[38] Between 1539 and 1600 presses produced 300 editions, and in the following century 2,007 editions were printed.[39] In the 16th century, more than 31% of locally produced imprints were in native Indian languages, mostly religious texts and grammars or vocabularies of Amerindian languages. In the 17th century, this rate dropped to 3% of total output.[40]
1581 [37]	Lima	Peru		Presses produced 1,106 titles between 1584 and 1699.[41]
1640 [37]	Puebla	Mexico
1660 [37]	Guatemala City	Guatemala
1700 [37]	Jesuit mission of Paraguay	Paraguay		Established with local materials by local Guaraní workers who had converted to Christianity.[37]
1707 [37]	Havana	Cuba
1736 [37]	Bogotá	Colombia
1759 [37]	Quito	Ecuador
1776 [37]	Santiago de Chile	Chile		Press functioned only briefly.[37] In 1818 permanently established.
1780 [37]	Buenos Aires	Argentina
1807	Montevideo	Uruguay
1808	Rio de Janeiro	Brazil
1808 [37]	Caracas	Venezuela
1810	Valparaiso	Chile

[edit] Africa

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comment
As early as 16th century		Mozambique	Portuguese
	Luanda	Angola	Portuguese
	Malindi	Kenya	Portuguese
1798	Cairo	Egypt	French
1806	Capetown	South Africa
c.1825		Madagascar
1833		Mauritius
1855 [42]	Scheppmansdorf (now: Rooibank)	Namibia	Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt	On 29 June 1855, Protestant missionary Kleinschmidt published 300 copies of Luther's catechism in the Nama language which represent the first printed works in that tongue. Political unrest seems to have prevented further printing activities. The press was reported as being functional as late as 1868, but whether printing was resumed is unknown.[42]

[edit] South Asia

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comments
1550	Goa	India	Jesuits
1569	Tranquebar	India	London Missionary Company
1737	?	Sri Lanka
1772	Madras	India
1779	Calcutta	India	Charl. Wilkins
1662	Bombay	India

[edit] South East Asia

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comments
1590	Manila	Philippines
1668	Batavia	Indonesia
1818	Sumatra Island	Indonesia

[edit] East Asia

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comment
1590	Nagasaki	Japan	Alessandro Valignano	The Jesuits in Nagasaki established The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan and printed a number of books in romanised Japanese language.
1883 [43]	Seoul	Korea	Inoue Kakugoro (Japanese)	The first printing press was imported from Japan for publishing Korea's first Korean-language newspaper Hansong Sunbo. After the press was destroyed by conservatists, Inoue returned with a new one from Japan, reviving the paper as a weekly under the name Hansong Chubo. Presses were also established in Seoul in 1885, 1888 and 1891 by Western missionaries.[43] However, the earliest printing press was apparently introduced by the Japanese in the treaty port of Pusan in 1881 to publish Korea's first newspaper, the bilingual Chosen shinpo.[44]

[edit] Inner Asia

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comments
1637	Isfahan	Iran	Armenians of New Julfa
1820	Tehran	Iran
	Tabriz	Iran

[edit] North America

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comments
1638	Cambridge	USA	Stephen Daye, Samuel Green (from 1649)
1686	Philadelphia	USA	W. Bradford
1693	New York City	USA	W. Bradford
1735	Germantown	USA	Christoph Sauer
1752	Halifax	Canada	John Bushell	The Halifax Gazette, Canada's first newspaper was published initially in this year.
1764	Quebec City	Canada		The Gazette du Quebec, Quebec's first newspaper was published initially in this year.
1793	Toronto	Canada		The Upper Canada Gazette (government sanctioned newspaper).
1828	New Echota, Arkansas	USA	Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)	Boudinot published the Cherokee Phoenix as first newspaper of the tribe.
1846	San Francisco	USA
1853	Oregon	USA
1858	Vancouver Island	Canada

[edit] Australia & Oceania

Date	City	Country	Printer	Comments
1795	?	Australia
1802	Sydney	Australia	George Howe
1818	Hobart, Tasmania	Australia
1818	Tahiti	French Polynesia
1821	Hawaii	Kingdom of Hawaii
1836	Maui	Kingdom of Hawaii

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

On the effects of Gutenberg's printing

• Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
• Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5.
• Febvre, Lucien & Martin, Henri-Jean. (1990) The Coming of the Book: the impact of printing 1450–1800. Verso, London & New York. ISBN 0-86091-797-5

[edit] See also

• Editio princeps
• History of printing
• History of the book
• Johannes Gutenberg
• Printing
• Printing press

[edit] External links